Publications

Sat, 10 Mar 2007 12:35:12 +1100

Lovat, T. and Douglas, B. (2007) Dialogue Amidst Difference in Anglican Eucharistic Theology: A Habermasian Breakthrough, Australian Ejournal of Theology, 9, March, Online at:
http://dlibrary.acu.edu.au/research/theology/ejournal/aejt_9/lovat.htm

Douglas, B. and Lovat, T., (2009) The Integrity of Discourse in the Anglican Eucharistic Tradition: A Consideration of Philosophical Assumptions (in print) The Heythrop Journal.
This article has been published by The Heythrop Journal in electronic form and will be published in print form in 2010. Online at: http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/121644838/abstract

Douglas, B. (2009) ‘Communicative Action: A Way Forward for Inter-Religious Dialogue’, Journal of Inter-religious Dialogue. Issue 01, Online at: http://irdialogue.org/uncategorized/

Douglas, B. and Lovat, T. (2009) ‘Dialogue Amidst Multiformity - A Habermasian Breakthrough in the Development of Anglican Eucharistic Liturgies’ (in print) The Journal of Anglican Studies. Published in early view format online at:
http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=5446380&fulltextType=RA&fileId=S1740355309000084

Lovat, T. and Douglas, B. (2010) ‘Theology in Australian Higher Education: The ‘Newcastle Model’ brings Theology Home to the Academy’, Higher Education Research and Development, 29: 1, 75-87. Online at: http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/content~db=all~content=a918235806

Links

Sat, 9 Dec 2006 19:18:10 +1100

http://www.liturgy.co.nz
This site describes itself as: “An independent website serving individuals and communities seeking to have worship that is vital, transforming and faithful”. It is run by a school chaplain in New Zealand called Bosco Peters and presents an extensive and very worthwhile set of materials. Bosco has been kind enough to link my site to his. Highly recommended.

http://www.teforall.org/index.html
This excellent site of the Episcopal Church of the United States of America provides resources for theological education. They have listed my site in the Resources sections in the area called ‘Our Anglican Identity - Anglican Worship & Book of Common Prayer’. Click on this link and then scroll down:
http://www.teforall.org/resources_10_bcp.html

http://anglicansonline.org
A very comprehensive web site which is updated weekly and contains a wealth of information on all things Anglican. Anglicans Online have listed my site amongst their collection of theological resources. A vital resource.

http://anglicanhistory.org
An extensive site titled Project Canterbury and containing a wealth of information on the Anglican Communion. Highly recommended.

http://www.newcastle.edu.au
The university where I studied for my PhD.

http://www.newcastle.edu.au/faculty/education-arts/lovatterry/index.html
My PhD supervisor was the Pro-Vice Chancellor (Education and Arts) of the University of Newcastle. I have enormous respect for this man and his ability as an academic and a supervisor.

http://www.ngs.nsw.edu.au
I worked as the School Chaplain at Newcastle Grammar School from 2001 to the end of 2007. The School is quite old by Australian standards with links back to 1816 when a school was begun in the vestry of the first Anglican church in Newcastle (Christ Church - later Christ Church Cathedral).

http://www.newcastlecathedral.org.au/index.html
Christ Church Cathedral Newcastle is the mother church of the Anglican Diocese of Newcastle. It is also the School Chapel of Newcastle Grammar School (best school chapel in Australia!). I was a Canon in Residence of Christ Church Cathedral during the time I was School Chaplain at Newcastle Grammar School.

http://www.canberragoulburn.anglican.org/
From the beginning of 2008 I began to work as a priest in the Anglican Diocese of Canberra and Goulburn. Information about the Diocese can be gained by visiting this web site.

http://www.stpaulsmanuka.org.au/
In early 2008 I became the ninth Rector of the Parish of St Paul’s Manuka in Canberra in the Australian Capital Territory. Information about the parish can be gained by visiting this web site.

http://australia.anglican.org
The Anglican Church of Australia site. There is information here about the church and its dioceses.

http://anglicancommunion.org
The web site of the Anglican Communion. Lots to explore here.

http://www.logos.com/products/prepub/details/2940
This valuable set of resources on the Oxford Movement is being published by Logos. The pre-publication price is very reasonable. The Darwell Stone work on the history of the Eucharist alone is a valuable source of information covering the period to the beginning of the twentieth century. The other material is an added bonus. Highly recommended for anyone wanting source material on the Oxford Movement.

Bibliography

Sun, 25 Jun 2006 11:06:50 +1000

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Jurgen Habermas Born 1929

Tue, 30 May 2006 12:00:00 +1000

Jurgen Habermas (born 1929) is a German philosopher who has written extensively on epistemology, arguing for “the idea of a broadly conceived critical theory of society” (Outhwaite, 1994: 152) and using critical theory to investigate “how is reliable knowledge possible” (Habermas, 1971: 3). For Habermas this search for reliable knowledge involves more than positivism or empirical scientific method, both of which rely on technical control. Science, it could be argued, attempts to clarify the structure and processes of the world through patient observation of sensible phenomena and by subsequent construction of hypotheses, formed on the basis of these observations. Scientific conclusions are therefore provisional and dependent on further experience, which can lead in turn to either a profound scepticism or to a desire for a more secure and emancipatory way of knowing which is not dependent on the uncertainties of theoretical fashion (Lawson-Tancred, 2004: xii). This is where philosophical reflection has its place, in a seeking after a more satisfying account of how the world is.

Habermas’ “deep grounding in the philosophical tradition” is matched by “a remarkable openness to a wide variety of contemporary philosophical and social theories” (Outhwaite, 1994: 5), the most obvious source being the broad Marxist tradition. Outhwaite describes Habermas’ relationship with Marxism “as one of positive critique” (Outhwaite, 1994: 17) in that Habermas, like Marx, values the quest for human liberation. For Habermas this quest takes form in the emancipatory nature of critical reflection as a way of knowing. This interest in the emancipatory potential of the critical way of knowing, as compared to other ways of knowing, such as the scientific and the technical, is not simply rationalisation on the part of an individual since “rationalisation is not emancipatory” (McCarthy, 1978: 36). Indeed Habermas’ work in Knowledge and Human Interests, published in 1971 and in Theory and Practice, published in 1973, “is centrally concerned with the philosophical and sociological issues raised by scientism, the reduction of all knowledge to that furnished by the empirical sciences, where these are conceived as an unproblematic reflection of reality” (Outhwaite, 1994: 20). Habermas’ concern is with ‘scientism’ not ‘science’ as such, where in scientism, technology and science can become ideology, inherently oriented to possible technical control, such that the rationality of science and technology come to pervade the whole world (Outhwaite, 1994: 21). Habermas calls this a “technocratic consciousness” and argues that it “affects the human race’s emancipatory interest as such” (Habermas, 1970: 111). Outhwaite argues that this ‘technocratic consciousness’ transforms practical questions, that is, moral-political questions, into technical ones, that in turn “excludes ideas of critique and emancipation” (Outhwaite, 1994: 22).

Garrigan, in much the same way, but more specifically in relation to the focus of this thesis, argues that sacraments should be seen as ‘acts’ rather than as texts, technical procedures or articles of faith (Garrigan, 2004: ix) and in so doing moves beyond the idea of sacraments as purely technical or hermeneutical and focuses debate about sacraments in the area of social justice-oriented discourse. This has particular relevance for this thesis, since it is argued that the dominance of technical and hermeneutic interests in the Anglican eucharistic tradition has to a great degree excluded critical reflection due to commitments to either technical or hermeneutic interests of particular groups within Anglicanism, such as Catholic or Evangelical Anglicans. It is also argued that such commitments to technical and hermeneutic interests, at the expense of critical intent and reflection, have impoverished and fetishised the Anglican eucharistic tradition and theological education, limiting the discourse of the Anglican tradition to a privileged technical or hermeneutic interest. This means that the eucharistic theology of particular interests, groups or traditions within Anglicanism (such as the Catholic or the Evangelical tradition) have become a form of scientism, rather than an exercise in the more critical science of theology generally. Specifically it seems, an interpretation of sacramental theology as scientism in some particular interests of the Anglican tradition, such as some Evangelical and some Catholic Anglicans, has focused eucharistic theology on technical issues, such as ‘How is Christ present in the Eucharist?’ and ‘How is Christ’s sacrifice remembered?’. At times this technical interest has manifested itself or been interpreted in a realism which borders on the fleshy (Christ’s fleshy presence in the Eucharist and Christ’s sacrifice re-iterated in the Eucharist) or a nominalism which separates the signs of the Eucharist (bread and wine and the remembrance of Christ’s sacrifice) from the signified (Christ’s body and blood and Christ’s sacrifice) as mutually exclusive entities without any identity between the two. Where theology becomes this sort of scientism, it focuses too closely on the technical: a fleshy presence in extreme realism or a nominalism founded on a subject-predicate discourse of abstract reference, based on a metalinguistic framework of semantic propositionalism, or it focuses too closely on the expression of a particular hermeneutic interest – be that Catholic or Evangelical interests. Where eucharistic theology functions as scientism it is really fetishised theology, which tends to exclude critical reflection on the Anglican eucharistic tradition as a whole, due to its commitment to particular technical or hermeneutic interests. This in turn prevents the emancipation of knowledge and a justice-oriented discourse within the Anglican eucharistic tradition and within programs of theological education.

Habermas’ understanding of knowing extends beyond the technical. For Habermas, “no matter how far our power of technical control over nature is extended, nature retains a substantial core that does not reveal itself to us” (Habermas, 1971: 33). Nature therefore seems to be more than the conceptual or semantic products of the human mind or human interests and precedes human history. This suggests that there is something universal in the nature of things, which critical reflection is capable of accessing, and which technical and hermeneutic interests fail to access due to their concentration on the particular. In the case of Anglican eucharistic theology, the particular eucharistic theology of groups or church parties within Anglicanism concentrates on the particular technical facts or hermeneutic interest of a church party, thereby failing to access whatever is universal or the essence of Anglican eucharistic theology. For Habermas though, critical science involving self-reflection, moves beyond technical and hermeneutic interests and “releases the subject from dependence on hypostatised powers” (Habermas, 1971: 310) so typical of particular groups within a tradition.

Habermas in, Knowledge and Human Interests, explains these apparent divisions in knowledge by reference to three interests or ways of knowing, already mentioned above – technical, historical-hermeneutic and critical-self reflective interests. These three interests have particular relevance to the purposes of this thesis and will now be examined in greater detail.

The first interest or way of knowing, the technical, relates to an empirical-analytic type of knowledge which is typically associated with facts and figures, emphasising observation and experimentation in the form of empirical verification. Habermas says, “the approach of the empirical-analytic sciences incorporates a technical cognitive interest” where “the frame of reference that prejudices meaning of possible statements establishes rules both for the construction of theories and their critical testing. Theories comprise hypothetico-deductive connections of propositions, which permit the deduction of lawlike hypotheses with empirical content” (Habermas, 1971: 308).

The second interest or way of knowing, what Habermas calls, the historical-hermeneutic, concerns understanding, where “access to the facts is provided by the understanding of meaning, not observation. The verification of lawlike hypotheses in the empirical-analytic sciences has its counterpart here in the interpretation of texts” (Habermas, 1971: 309). This second level is about the negotiation of meaning through communication in either verbal or written forms.

The third type of knowledge, the critical-self reflective sciences, Habermas suggests, remains unsatisfied by both the technical and the historical-hermeneutic sciences. Instead the critical-self reflective sciences are concerned with “the critique of ideology” which produces “an emancipatory cognitive interest” (Habermas, 1971: 310). As Smith and Lovat comment:

“For Habermas, it is only when we have reached the third level that we are guaranteed true knowledge because true knowledge demands that we be free. At the first two levels, we are still liable to be controlled, to be insulated from critiques which are outside our immediate frame of reference. The so-called ‘truth’ which we receive at these levels can be the result of ideology or ‘unreflective action’”. (Smith and Lovat, 2003: 89).

It is this unreflective action which often functions within the Anglican eucharistic tradition as the ideology of a particular technical or hermeneutic interest of the Anglican tradition (Catholic or Evangelical) and which in turn limits critical intent.

Habermas’ third level of knowledge alerts us to the power of this so-called ‘critical theory’. As Smith and Lovat comment:

“Without the third level of reflection, any learning does little more than offer information about data which is outside, and apart from ourselves. It is critical theory, implicit in the third level of reflection, which forces us to scrutinize and appraise the adequacy of this information and to evaluate its meaning for ourselves. Without critical theory, the information which comes from any subject can become a means of bondage, rather than emancipation, a way of oppressing people or keeping them in straitjackets.” (Smith and Lovat, 2003: 90).

Habermas’ discussion of knowledge and human interests has significance for this thesis in terms of an examination of the Anglican eucharistic tradition. By means of a methodology of phenomenology, using the philosophical concepts of realism and nominalism, this thesis seeks to investigate the epistemology of the Anglican eucharistic tradition in a way that is emancipated from the narrow confines of particular interests which exist within Anglicanism. Habermas’ treatment of communicative action involves intersubjective dialogue and promotes critical interest and the sharing of understanding between the participants of a tradition who act as both speakers and hearers of each other’s views and the tradition as a whole. This has particular ramifications for theological education in the Anglican tradition.

Where technical and hermeneutic interests dominate, such a situation leads to the impoverishment or fetishisation of the Anglican eucharistic tradition and educational programs which seek to teach eucharistic theology within the confines of such narrow technical or hermeneutical boundaries. Habermas’ insights in critical theory suggest that critical reflection on the essences of the Anglican eucharistic tradition as a whole would lead to less dependence on and dominance by technical and hermeneutic interests and that this in turn would allow for the emancipation of the Anglican eucharistic tradition from the bondage of these narrow interests.

Habermas and the Theory of Communicative Action

Mon, 29 May 2006 12:00:00 +1000

Habermas acknowledges that since the beginning of the modern Enlightenment era, Western thought has often taken the view that science and technology hold out the promise of limitless advances, with accompanying moral and political improvement (Habermas, 1984 and 1989). Not all commentators, including Habermas, agree with this vision. Stephen White, for example, points out that one of the most distinctive features of the intellectual activity of the final years of the twentieth century has been the doubts raised about the conceptual foundations of Western modernity, with hard questions being asked about these predominant understandings of reason, subjectivity, nature, progress and gender (White, 1995: 3). Habermas does not however advocate the abandonment of the project of the Enlightenment, but rather argues for its redirection. This he does in his two volume work, The Theory of Communicative Action (Habermas, 1984 and 1989). Here he puts the case that reason can be defended only by way of a critique of reason. In so doing his concept of rationality is one that is no longer tied to and limited by subjectivistic and individualistic premises, but rather argues for an integration of what he calls the ‘lifeworld’ and system paradigms. ‘System’ and ‘lifeworld’ Habermas views as the fundamental problem of social theory, that is, how to connect in a satisfactory manner these two conceptual strategies (Habermas, 1989: 151). Systems are understood as open and to maintain themselves even in the face of unstable and hypercomplex environments through interchange processes across their boundaries (Habermas, 1989: 151). Systems are concerned with the maintenance of society and their fundamental nature and identity is the means by which a society stands or falls. The concerns of system paradigms include matters such as culture, social integration and socialisation, and it is these that function as boundary-maintaining systems for the society as a whole. System paradigms steer society in powerful and persistent ways with universal significance whereas lifeworlds are often characterised by the separation of culture, society and personality (Habermas, 1989: 152). ‘Lifeworld’ for Habermas has a particularity about it and is made up of the “culturally transmitted and linguistically organised stock of interpretative patterns” (Habermas, 1989: 124) often sedimented in texts, traditions and cultural artefacts or in organised institutions, systems and structures, such that ideas are embodied in cultural value spheres, in personality structures and in social institutions with their particular conflicts and interests (Habermas, 1984: 108) based on the organization of authority and political power (McCarthy, 1984: xiv). Lifeworlds often differ from the normal world-concepts or system in that lifeworlds are often associated with particular individuals or groups of people and the traditions they see as sacred. World-concepts or system paradigms are seen as more fundamental, involving criticisable validity claims, based on a frame or categorical scaffolding that serves to order problematic situations (Habermas, 1989: 125), involving “suppositions of commonality” (Habermas, 1984: 102). Communicative action therefore points beyond the particular to the more universal aspects of society. Habermas says that:

“the aspects of the rationality of action we found in communicative action should now permit us to grasp processes of societal rationalization across the whole-breadth, and no longer solely from the selective viewpoint of purposive rational action” (Habermas, 1984: 335).

World-concepts and system paradigms point beyond the circle of those immediately involved and have claims valid for outside interpreters as well, whereas ‘lifeworlds’ are seen as being already substantially interpreted and as such often prevent those in such a lifeworld from stepping outside of it (Habermas, 1989: 126). Lifeworlds therefore are the unquestioned ground of everything given in a person’s experience and the unquestionable frame in which all the problems I have to deal with are located. Lifeworlds are said to be intuitively present and therefore familiar and transparent as well as being a vast and incalculable web of presuppositions that need to be satisfied if an actual utterance is to be meaningful, that is, valid or invalid. Lifeworlds are very much taken for granted and maintain themselves beyond the threshold of criticisable convictions (Habermas, 1989: 131). Lifeworlds therefore can take the form of sacred truth, and for those who find it impossible to free themselves from the naïve, situation-oriented attitude of being actors caught up in the communicative practice of everyday life within their lifeworld, it is impossible to grasp the limitations of that lifeworld since these actors cannot get behind the context of their lifeworld and examine it with critical intent. Further they see their lifeworld in the sense that it cannot in principle be exhausted and so their critical interest is limited by their hermeneutic idealism (Habermas, 1989: 133).

Habermas’ response to this decline of the paradigm of consciousness, where a person is prevented, by the very constraints of their lifeworld, from stepping out of their lifeworld and engaging with world-concepts, is to propose an explicit shift to the paradigm of language – not language as a syntactic or semantic system, but to what he calls language-in-use or speech or communicative action (McCarthy, 1984: ix). Habermas says that:

“the concept of communicative action refers to the interaction of at least two subjects capable of speech and action who establish interpersonal relations (whether by verbals or by extra-verbal means). The actors seek to reach an understanding about the action situation and their plans of action in order to coordinate their actions by way of agreement. The central concept of interpretation refers in the first instance to negotiating definitions of the situation which admit of consensus. … Language is given a prominent place in this model” (Habermas, 1984: 86).

Communicative action involves a shift of focus from the teleological to the communicative dimension where the analysis of language as social action is the basic medium of communication. The teleological aspect refers to the realising of one’s aims or the carrying out of one’s plan of action, whereas the communicative aspect refers to the interpretation of a situation and arriving at some agreement (Habermas, 1989: 126). Rationality therefore, for Habermas, “has less to do with the possession of knowledge than with how speaking and acting subjects acquire and use knowledge” (Habermas, 1984: 8). This suggests that the means of reaching understanding are important matters to be considered and for Habermas this involves intersubjective recognition for the various validity claims of those who may hold differing positions and views, and that the reasons and grounds of these differing positions become important. Habermas argues that:

“In communicative action, the very outcome of interaction is even made to depend on whether the participants can come to an agreement among themselves on a intersubjectively valid appraisal of their relations to the world. On this model of action, an interaction can succeed only if those involved arrive at a consensus among themselves, a consensus that depends on yes/no responses to claims potentially based on grounds” (Habermas, 1984: 106).

Habermas argues that it is possible to reach agreement about differing and disputed positions by means of argument and shared insights which do not depend on force, but rather on reasons and grounds. It is this process of critique or argumentation that allows communicative action and rationality to proceed (Habermas, 1984: 17-18). Agreement between parties then rests on the sharing of common convictions (Habermas, 1984: 287) and functions as communicatively shared intersubjectivity where reflection on one’s own affective and practical nature means that people act in a self-critical attitude. Habermas says that:

“this concept of communicative rationality carries with it connotations based ultimately on the central experience of the unconstrained, unifying, consensus bringing force of argumentative speech, in which different participants overcome their merely subjective views and, owing to the mutuality of rationally motivated conviction, assure themselves of both the unity of the objective world and the intersubjectivity of their lifeworlds” (Habermas, 1984: 10).

Not only does this result in mutual convictions, but “in coordinating their actions by way of intersubjectively recognizing criticisable validity claims, they are at once relying on membership in social groups and strengthening the integration of those same groups” (Habermas, 1989: 137). There are therefore important benefits deriving from communicative action, not only for mutual understanding but also for group integration and harmony within a tradition as a whole.

This way of acting however, means that people, in order to adopt a critical interest and engage in communicative action, would need to objectify their lifeworld as a boundary-maintaining system rather than assuming that their lifeworld is ‘the’ system and the way things are in a universal sense. Here Habermas distinguishes between ‘instrumental mastery’ and ‘communicative action’, such that instrumental mastery is often employed in the appropriation of a hermeneutic where communicative action maintains a critical focus (Habermas, 1984: 11). This means that “an interpreter can go beyond this subjectively purposive-rational orientation and compare the actual course of action with the constructed case of a corresponding objectively purposive-rational course of action” (Habermas, 1984: 102). Communicative action or communicative rationality therefore, Habermas argues, pays attention to the seams between system and lifeworld, since it is the seams that hold the potential for emancipation from the power of particular hermeneutic interests as well as resistance to more self-critical attitudes. These ‘seams’ are the points of intersection, where there can be both harmony and conflict, and it is these seams that form the basis for the dialogue that is the argumentation of communicative action and rationality.

Any process of dialogue is severely constrained by a desire to maintain control and ownership of the system in the sense that the system is seen to be equivalent to the lifeworld of an individual, group or tradition. Habermas therefore states that “in the context of communicative action, only those persons count as responsible who, as members of a communicative community, can orient their actions to intersubjectively recognized validity claims” (Habermas, 1984: 14). This greater degree of communicative rationality in turn expands, says Habermas, “the scope for unconstrained coordination of actions and consensual resolution of conflicts” (Habermas, 1984: 15).

Habermas argues that the Enlightenment’s promise of life informed by reason cannot be redeemed so long as the rationality that finds expression in society is deformed by capitalist modernisation or by the laws of history (McCarthy, 1984: xxxvii). Ownership exerts itself through ‘hermeneutic idealism’, where the view or views of some participants in society are taken, by these participants and others, to be ‘the’ view or ‘the’ system paradigm and where such a perspective only succeeds in blinding the participants to causes, connections and consequences that lie beyond the lifeworld of the everyday practice of an individual, groups or institutions. For Habermas therefore, intersubjective understanding, based on communicative expression, cannot be carried out in a solipsistic manner. Participation with others in a process of reaching understanding is therefore seen as essential. Where understanding is seen to be hermetically sealed in a particular tradition or hermeneutic interest, the lifeworld remains closed and can only be opened when there is a desire and competence to speak and act in a spirit of participation and where there is communication which encourages people to become at least potential members of a lifeworld (Habermas, 1984: 112). This means that the “processes of reaching understanding are aimed at a consensus that depends on the intersubjective recognition of validity claims; and these claims can be reciprocally raised and fundamentally criticized by participants in communication” (Habermas, 1984: 136). This suggests that the purpose of rational communicative action is not egocentric ownership but the act of reaching understanding. Participants can still be oriented to their own interests but they do this under conditions which harmonise their plans of action on the basis of common situation definitions (Habermas, 1984: 286). This is what Habermas calls “an ideal communicative community” (Habermas, 1989: 2) where critical interest is beyond the understanding of a particular hermeneutic interest and where communicative action performs the task of coordinating and mediating. This suggests that such critical interest brings about “the emergence of higher-level form of life characterized by a linguistically constituted form of intersubjectivity that makes communicative action possible” (Habermas, 1989: 10-11). In such a form of life, language function as a medium of not only reaching understanding and transmitting cultural knowledge, but it also functions as a means of socialisation and social integration. These take place through acts of reaching understanding (Habermas, 1989: 24-25) where the authority of the holy (that is, the lifeworld and its particular hermeneutic interest) is gradually replaced by the authority of an achieved consensus (Habermas, 1989: 77). This suggests a moving beyond a particular hermeneutic interest (that is, the holy) and into the area of the binding and bonding force of criticisable validity. When this occurs there is a movement towards social integration that is no longer dependent on institutionalised values but on intersubjective recognition of validity claims (Habermas, 1989: 89). When a situation is communicatively mediated, the action norms of the participants depend on shared situation definitions that refer simultaneously to the objective, the normative and the subjective facets of the situation in question (Habermas, 1989: 90). Dialogue or communication rationality in action does not therefore mean the abandonment of subjective meaning or particular technical or hermeneutic interests and the focussing on the intersubjective alone, but rather an acknowledgement of the ‘ego’ of the speaker who has expressed his or her experiences (the subjective aspect of a hermeneutic interest) but also the ‘ego’ that refers to someone as a member of a social group who is entering into an interpersonal relation (the intersubjective) with (at least) one other member (Habermas, 1989: 90). Communicative action seeks this type of shared understanding.

A Glossary of Terms

Sun, 28 May 2006 12:00:00 +1000

Particular: a thing or instance of something (a rock, a pen, a piece of paper, a piece of bread, a cup of wine). Particulars can also be referred to as ‘signs’. In relation to the Eucharist the particulars or signs are bread, wine and Christ’s body and blood. Other particulars in the Eucharist could be the church or group of people who share the Eucharist together, the words of scripture or the person who presides at the Eucharist.

Universal: the nature of something which exists beyond the particular (the nature of a rock or ‘rock-ness’; the nature of a pen or ‘pen-ness’; the nature of bread or ‘bread-ness’) and independently of the classifying mind. A universal can also be referred to as the ‘signified’. The nature refers to whatever it is (the nature or the signified) that makes the particular what it is. In relation to the Eucharist the universal could be said to be the nature of Christ – whatever it is that is Christ.

Realism: the philosophical notion that the sign and the signified are linked in some way. Realism accepts the idea that there are universals beyond particulars and that particulars instantiate (are an instance of) universals. A particular rock is seen to be an instance of whatever the nature of a rock, its ‘rock-ness’, is. In the Eucharist for example, a realist analysis would argue that the particulars or signs of bread and wine and the body and blood of Christ (or the church, or the words of scripture, or the presider) are linked to the universal, the nature of Christ. The particular sign therefore instantiates (is an instance of) the universal in some way. The particulars of bread and wine, for example, are therefore seen to be instantiations of the universal, the nature of Christ. A realist would therefore argue that when they receive the bread and wine of the Eucharist they are also receiving the nature of Christ in or with the signs of bread and wine

Nominalism: the philosophical notion that there are no universals and that particulars are all there is. Nominalism does not accept the idea that there are universals beyond the particulars, nor does it accept that particulars instantiate universals. For a nominalist all there is are particulars (a rock, a piece of bread, a cup of wine, Christ’s body and blood) without any realist link between particulars. Any linking between particulars occurs in a propositional manner only (e.g. ‘the bread and wine of the Eucharist reminds me or signifies to me Christ’s body and blood, that he was sacrificed and that there are benefits for me which derive from that sacrifice’). A nominalist would therefore argue that when they receive the bread and wine of the Eucharist they are receiving only bread and wine and that there is no universal notion such as the nature of Christ. The nature of Christ or Christ’s body and blood is not seen to exist as a universal notion and so is not received in or with the bread and wine of the Eucharist in a nominalist analysis.

Moderate Realism: a philosophical notion referring to identity of nature or loose identity as philosophers call it. This means that the sign instantiates the signified in a loose way, that is, identity of nature, rather than as strict identity. In the terms of eucharistic theology this means that the signs of bread and wine, for example, instantiate the nature of Christ as word or logos, in much the same way that the person of Jesus instantiated the nature of Christ as word or logos (John 1:14). Jesus therefore instantiated the nature of Christ as a person on earth and the bread and wine of the Eucharist instantiate the nature of Christ as well. In terms of eucharistic sacrifice this means that the nature of Christ’s sacrifice is instantiated in the Eucharist by a process of dynamic remembrance (known as anamnesis) such that the effects of Christ’s sacrifice in the past are instantiated in the Eucharist in the present by means of the eucharistic action. Some of the theories of moderate realism are known as the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist and transubstantiation. Moderate realist notions of eucharistic presence and sacrifice are frequently found in the eucharistic theology of the Roman Catholic Church and the Anglican Church.

In moderate realist eucharistic theology the statement: ‘This is my body’ means that the signs (‘this’) instantiate the nature of Christ and the signs are the means whereby the benefits of Christ’s presence and sacrifice are conveyed to people in the Eucharist. This is sometimes known as the sacramental principle, that is, God working in this world through the things of this world (e.g. bread and wine, or memorial remembrance) in order to convey grace to people by means of these signs. People therefore in consuming the elements of the Eucharist are not receiving real flesh and blood in the their physical sense but rather the nature of Christ which is nonetheless real and effective in that the signs convey or are the vehicles of the grace of Christ.

Immoderate Realism: a philosophical notion referring to strict identity as philosophers call it. This means that the sign and the signified are strictly identical in every way, physically as well as metaphysically. In terms of eucharistic theology this would mean that the signs of the Eucharist, the bread and wine, become the physical, carnal or bloody body and blood of Christ in the sense that real flesh and real blood is on the altar following consecration. In terms of eucharistic sacrifice, immoderate realism would imply that Christ is sacrificed again or really in the Eucharist (a re-immolation of Christ or a re-iteration of Christ’s sacrifice). Immoderate notions of eucharistic presence and sacrifice are found in corrupted views of eucharistic theology, such as those that were common in some medieval theologies of the Eucharist where it was sometimes believed that the bread, once it had become the fleshy presence of Christ on the altar was capable of bleeding in a gross sense of Christ’s presence and sacrifice. Generally immoderate notions of eucharistic presence or sacrifice are rejected by the Roman Catholic and Anglican Churches. It is important to note that transubstantiation (as defined by Thomas Aquinas), the real presence notion of Christ’s presence in the Eucharist and the idea of memorial remembrance as anamnesis are not immoderate realist concepts but moderate realist in the eucharistic theology that it presents.

In an immoderate realist eucharistic theology the statement: ‘This is my body’ means that the signs (‘this’) become the body and blood of Christ in a fleshy and physical manner such that real flesh and blood (with all the physical characteristics of flesh and blood) are present on the altar in the Eucharist and consumed by the communicant in a gross manner.

Moderate Nominalism: a philosophical notion referring to the idea that whatever exists is a particular and nothing but a particular. This means that signs do not instantiate any signified universals since the existence of universals is denied. All that exists are particulars – bread and wine which are used in the Eucharist are one set of particulars and Christ’s body and blood which existed in the first century AD and which no longer exists in that form are another set of particulars. The nature of Christ as a universal notion is therefore not instantiated in the signs of the Eucharist in a moderate nominalist analysis. The Eucharist therefore is about remembering what happened in the past and receiving the benefits of Christ’s presence and sacrifice by faith alone. The benefits or grace of Christ are not received through any signs on earth even though the sacraments are the context in which the remembering occurs and the grace is received by faith.

In a moderate nominalist eucharistic theology the statement: ‘This is my body’ means that the signs (‘this’) signify the body and blood of Christ but do not become the body and blood in either a moderate or immoderate realist sense. The particulars (the bread and the wine on one hand and the body and blood of Christ on the other) remain separated entities and are not therefore the vehicles of grace. The presence of any universal (e.g. the nature of Christ, in either a loose or strict sense of identity) is denied and so the sacramental principle is denied in any realist sense, even though the sacraments function as the context for the remembering and the receiving of grace by faith alone.

Immoderate Nominalism: a philosophical notion referring to the idea that whatever exists is a particular and nothing but a particular. The existence of universals is denied and the idea that signs instantiate the signified is also denied. All that exists are particulars – bread and wine which are used in the Eucharist and Christ’s body and blood which existed in the first century AD and which no longer exists in that form and is not instantiated in the signs of the Eucharist. The Eucharist is not the means whereby Christ is remembered by faith since this is only seen to occur through the rational and propositional statements found in the words of Scripture. Whereas moderate nominalism admits that the benefits of Christ’s presence and sacrifice are known by faith in the remembering that occurs in the context of the Eucharist, immoderate nominalism does not admit this, and instead argues that the benefits of Christ’s can only be known through the words of Scripture. This knowing through Scripture occurs through the promises of God which Scripture presents as the word is read and proclaimed. Immoderate nominalists therefore deny that there is any presence or sacrifice in the Eucharist in a realist sense through signs and also deny that the benefits of Christ are known in the Eucharist by a process of remembering as the communicant participates in and receives communion. The benefits of Christ can only be known in an immoderate nominalist analysis through hearing and receiving the promises of God which are found in the words of Scripture, proclaimed and preached. The immoderate nominalist therefore rejects the notion of participating in Christ sacramentally (either in the realist sense using the signs which instantiate the signified or in the moderate nominalist sense of by faith alone). God therefore is only seen to work in the world directly through God’s word and not sacramentally through signs. Sacraments are therefore seen as something created by people and of a lesser status that the ‘word’ of Scripture which is seen to be created by God. Sacraments are therefore signs of God’s promises which are known through the word and not through sacramental signs. People participate in Christ by faith alone, but this occurs, not through the sacraments, as moderate realism and moderate nominalism suggest, but through the word alone.

Habermas and ramifications for Anglican eucharistic theology

Sat, 27 May 2006 12:00:00 +1000

Habermas’ theory of communicative action has been seen as enabling theology to resolve questions of access, because Habermas bases his work not on ‘action’ but ‘interaction’ (Garrigan, 2004: 72). Habermas’ contribution to philosophy, she argues, “has been to shift it from the ‘work’ model of activity to one based on communicative action. Prior to Habermas, the essence of philosophy of the subject was that the subject was defined by his or her ‘work’; after Habermas, philosophy is required to explore the ramifications of a theory of the subject wherein it is the subject-subject relation, not the subject-object relation, that gives the point of access to the subject” (Garrigan, 2004: 73). Garrigan’s analysis of Habermas points the way to an emphasis in any one area of intellectual endeavour, such as Anglican eucharistic theology, to the importance of interactions between speakers and hearers (subject-subject) rather than the work of individual thinkers (subject-object). This suggests that the work of Habermas has relevance to any relationship between humanity and God, since it is not about acts, actors and actions, but about interactions between speakers and hearers. In is in this sense that Habermas’ insights have particular relevance for the Anglican eucharistic tradition and for Anglican theological education since they suggest dialogue and interaction (subject-subject) rather than the division and acrimony that often occurs when there is too much or exclusive concentration on the object, that is, ‘my work’ or particular hermeneutic interest, as subject-object. Habermas’ suggestion that reason be transformed, rather than abandoned, implies that rationality can no longer be tied to and limited by the subjective and individual hermeneutic interests of church parties and the particular theologians and theological views that inform those interests. As Garrigan points out, there is a distinction here between ‘communication’ and ‘communicative action’. This distinction rests on the idea of “speech acts as bringing about an understanding (through ‘communicative action’) rather than presuming, or even necessarily arriving at the point of understanding (‘communication’)” (Garrigan, 2004: 76).

There is a case then to be made for viewing the Anglican eucharistic tradition as a system paradigm (within a larger system paradigm of the Anglican tradition of Christianity, which itself exists within the larger system paradigm of Christianity and perhaps even the system paradigm of the human society) rather than as particular lifeworlds such as those that exist within the various church parties of Anglicanism (e.g. Anglican Evangelicals and Anglican Catholics). These lifeworlds are often distinct from system paradigms since they are substantially determined and interpreted, perhaps even hermetically sealed, and so lacking in critical interest. In order to become a true ‘communicative community’ theological education in the Anglican tradition needs to recognise that lifeworlds really function as boundary-maintaining devices, which are important and perform the valuable function of defining a hermeneutic, but that they themselves are not the system paradigm of the Anglican eucharistic tradition. The evidence of the Anglican eucharistic tradition (in terms of its theologians, liturgies and statements) seems to show (as is suggested by the Case Studies in my thesis) that the system paradigm of the Anglican eucharistic tradition is not solely the lifeworld of Anglican Evangelicals or Anglican Catholics. The evidence of the case studies and the extracted essences suggest that the basis of this system paradigm is a multiformity of Anglican eucharistic theology and that the system paradigm or world-concepts revolve around this multiformity which functions according to the philosophical concepts of moderate realism and moderate nominalism. The case studies suggest that this multiformity is pervasive throughout Anglican eucharistic theology, not only historically but also across the various theological and philosophical assumptions, and that uniformity is not a characteristic essence of the Anglican eucharistic tradition, despite the efforts of some to argue for one lifeworld for Anglicanism (e.g. reformed, evangelical Protestantism, or those who advocate a ‘correct’ Catholic view or Miley’s assumption that Anglicanism is a via media (Miley, 2002 and 2003). The evidence of this thesis suggests that the essence of the Anglican eucharistic tradition is not limited to either the Evangelical lifeworld or the Catholic lifeworld or any other single lifeworld. The case studies have supplied ample evidence to suggest that the Anglican eucharistic tradition is too reliant on particular lifeworlds and the particular hermeneutic interests they hold (e.g. the eucharistic texts and their particular points of emphasis for various Anglican traditions and provinces throughout the Anglican Communion is an excellent example of how the lifeworld of some parts of the Anglican Communion have become tied to particular texts, traditions and artefacts).

The work of Habermas when applied to the Anglican eucharistic tradition, as analysed by the case studies of this thesis, leads to the conclusion that there is not just one lifeworld for the tradition. Further the extracted essences of the case studies suggest that the system paradigm for the Anglican eucharistic tradition involves a recognition of the distinction between realism and nominalism to the moderate degree. This suggests that unless the Anglican eucharistic tradition is more willing to concede that a plurality or multiformity of view is the essence of the tradition, then the benefits of communicative action will not be accessible for the Anglican tradition as a whole and for the theological education that supports it. While hermeneutic idealism persists in the Anglican eucharistic tradition, the critical interest of the tradition, its theological education and the Anglican tradition itself, will be impoverished and fetishised.

Habermas’ work also suggests that if a process of communicative action is to be part of the Anglican eucharistic tradition and associated theological education programs, then the seams between the lifeworld of particular hermeneutic interests and the system need to be explored and acknowledged more fully, both in terms of their intersections and their conflicts. Habermas takes what has been described as a middle path, which focuses on the process of truth-making or rational discourse rather than on the idea of truth as an outcome (Garrigan, 2004: 81). This suggests that truth is a process, not an outcome or presumed ideal or goal but a universal regulatory idea. Following this line of argument, it can be said that sacramental theology is then more a process of interpretation, negotiated between speakers and hearers, than instrumental outcomes adopted by various parties. The philosophical work of people such as David Armstrong has much to offer here, since Armstrong’s work also speaks of truth-making (Armstrong, 2004) and provides a model for the system paradigm of at least the Anglican eucharistic tradition and perhaps for the Anglican tradition as a whole. This model (based on the distinction between realism and nominalism to both moderate and immoderate degrees) has been employed in this thesis as a means of conceptualising the philosophical assumptions underlying Anglican eucharistic theology and in so doing exploring the system paradigm of the Anglican eucharistic tradition which is multiform (interpretative) rather than uniform (instrumental). The benefits of such an approach for the tradition and for theological education lie in the potential that exists for emancipation from narrow technical and hermeneutic interests.

The distinction here is between those whose action is normatively regulated and those whose action is communicative. Normative action expects that people will comply with a norm and that the members of a group will expect certain behaviour, but where action is communicative there is more than one actor and the focus is on interpretation and the subjects trying to reach understanding. The difficulty of course presents itself in any situation where a lifeworld of a particular hermeneutic interests claims to be ‘the’ system paradigm. Such claims, dependent on a sacred or holy view of the lifeworld and the possession of privileged knowledge, limit the chances for communicative action and the benefits of shared understanding. This is particularly apparent in the views of some Anglican theologians. Some Anglican Evangelicals, for example, in their claim to be interpreting the plain words of Scripture or the purity of Reformation Anglican doctrine (such as is found in particular interpretations of foundational Anglican documents like the Thirty-Nine Articles or the 1662 Book of Common Prayer) believe that their lifeworld (Reformed Anglican Evangelicalism) is the essence of Anglicanism and Anglican eucharistic theology. Others, who are Anglican Catholics, in their claim to be interpreting the ‘correct Catholic’ position on the Eucharist, claim that their lifeworld is the essence of Anglicanism and Anglican eucharistic theology. The problem here is not that these lifeworlds and their hermeneutic interests are illegitimate, but that they claim to be the legitimate essence of the Anglican eucharistic tradition on the basis of being the protectors and possessors of holy and sacred knowledge which is aimed at providing these particular hermeneutic interests with a privileged status.

The evidence of this thesis suggests however, that the Anglican eucharistic is multiform and therefore more than one paticular lifeworld or technical or hermeneutic interest. There is, on the basis of the evidence presented in this thesis in the case studies and in the extracted essences, no one set of holy or sacred knowledge and no privileged position for any one hermeneutic interest. As Habermas argues, each of these positions is hermetically sealed within its own solipsism without any intersubjective understanding. The case studies of this thesis and their analysis suggest that the essence of the Anglican eucharistic tradition is more fundamental than these particular hermeneutic interests. The multiformity of the Anglican eucharistic tradition, based on the philosophical assumptions of realism and nominalism to the moderate degree, are seen as being fundamental in their multiformity to the system paradigm of the Anglican eucharistic tradition, and it is along the seams of this system and its lifeworlds that the process of communicative action or dialogue is seen to have the most significant ramifications for the Anglican tradition as a whole.

Habermas’ work suggests that if ownership of particular hermeneutic interest is the focus of Anglicanism, its eucharistic tradition and its theological education, then the society which is Anglicanism will be deformed. On the other hand, Habermas’ work also suggests that if communicative action is part of the everyday practice of Anglicanism, its eucharistic tradition and theological education, then agreed understanding and critical interest will be the focus of Anglicanism, such that there is intersubjective recognition of validity claims in speech acts – people talking to one another in dialogue rather than adversarial exchange springing from the ownership of particular knowledge in a particular hermeneutic interest and the presumption of a privileged status. Moving beyond this sort of deformed position requires that a person be prepared to leave the situation of self and subjective opinion and move towards the situation of sharing in another person’s experience, which may or may not be different to their own. This recognition of the need for a communicative aspect rather than a teleological aspect, requires a person be prepared to step outside their own lifeworld, despite the fact that the lifeworld is already substantially interpreted, and reflect critically on their own and other’s lifeworlds. This does not mean that a person needs to dismiss their lifeworld, indeed they probably should not, since as Knitter observes, we need to acknowledge and keep hold of who we are and how we have been formed (Knitter, 1991: 153), but at the same time we need to be able to step outside our lifeworld and share intersubjectively with others so that we can appreciate the system paradigm as a whole. Some of the modern case studies cited in this thesis have provided examples of those who are prepared to move outside their particular lifeworld and to surrender ownership and seek to pay attention to the seams between system and lifeword. Cocksworth (1993) is an example of an Anglican Evangelical who has done this in his investigation of eucharitic theology in the Anglican tradition when he affirms sacramentality. Williams (2000) as an Anglican Catholic does this as well when he steps outside his lifeworld to question the very nature of sacramentality. Others, such as Ford (1995) and Pickstock (1998) use philosophical concepts to investigate a model for eucharistic theology – an infrequently used methodology for the Anglican tradition. These and other modern cases studies will be discussed more fully below in regard to this critical approach to knowing.

Habermas’ work leads to the conclusion that if Anglicanism is to become a communicative community where the coordination of actions leads to the consensual resolution of actions, based not on the possession and appropriation of particular knowledge within a particular hermeneutic interest, but on the way knowledge is acquired and used, then there will be a rationality of shared understanding instead of the acrimony of party spirit. This is a redirection of reason and not its abandonment. The common conviction or shared understanding becomes the idea that the system paradigm of Anglicanism is not one lifeworld or hermeneutic interest. Subjectivistic and individualistic premises need not be the centre of rationality in the Anglican eucharistic tradition and in Anglican theological education. Rather the shared understanding and common conviction is that the Anglican eucharistic tradition is multiform and not uniform – that there is a complexity which extends beyond individual texts, traditions, cultural artefacts and institutional forms, and this can be known when a communicative community takes shape. A supposition of commonality becomes more powerful and more fundamental than particular technical or hermeneutic interests. This also means that participants must be able to step outside their own lifeworld and consider the system as a whole free of hermeneutic idealism. At no point does this mean that the particular hermeneutic traditions or lifeworlds need to surrender their own presuppositions or propositional content, but it does mean that each of the lifeworlds needs to acknowledge the existence of other lifeworlds and their presuppositions and propositional content. A participant in a lifeworld needs to acknowledge that their lifeworld is a boundary-maintaining system for that particular traditions, but that their lifeworld is not the system paradigm itself. It is in this process of communicative action or dialogue and shared understanding that has the potential of emancipating the system paradigm of the Anglican eucharistic tradition from the deformity of an impoverished and fetishised world view.